Notes, Chapter 12

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.1. Managing the Work Environment

Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading, and controlling resources within an entity with the overall aim of achieving established goals. Organizational management provides leaders the ability to make decisions and resolve issues effectively for the benefit of the organization and its employees.

While some enlisted members may think of strategic thinking as "above their pay grade," thinking strategically is important when establishing goals, and planning how to achieve them, within any unit or work center. Strategic thinking can be applied at any level, across an entire enterprise or on a specific project.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.1. Managing the Work Environment

Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading, and controlling resources within an entity with the overall aim of achieving established goals. Organizational management provides leaders the ability to make decisions and resolve issues effectively for the benefit of the organization and its employees.

While some enlisted members may think of strategic thinking as "above their pay grade," thinking strategically is important when establishing goals, and planning how to achieve them, within any unit or work center. Strategic thinking can be applied at any level, across an entire enterprise or on a specific project.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.2 Strategic Thinking

Strategic Thinking refers to thinking on both a large and small scale, long- and short-term in order to identify and achieve desired goals.

When retired Air Force general officers were asked to think of the Airmen they had worked with during their career who most exceled at Strategic Thinking, they indicated that those Airmen exceled at:

- Identifying best and worst case scenarios for how a situation might be resolved

- Considering how other stakeholders would be affected by proposed courses of action

- Viewing issues from the perspective of more senior leadership ("work your boss's boss's problems")

- Identifying a realistic time horizon for achieving goals, and building on small successes ("Thought BIG. Started small. Scaled fast.")

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.2 Strategic Thinking

Strategic Thinking refers to thinking on both a large and small scale, long- and short-term in order to identify and achieve desired goals.

When retired USAF general officers were asked to think of the Airmen they had worked with during their career who most exceled at Strategic Thinking, they indicated that those Airmen exceled at:

- Identifying best and worst case scenarios for how a situation might be resolved

- Considering how other stakeholders would be affected by proposed courses of action

- Viewing issues from the perspective of more senior leadership ("work your boss's boss's problems")

- Identifying a realistic time horizon for achieving goals, and building on small successes ("Thought BIG. Started small. Scaled fast.")

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.3 Strategic Thinking Mindset

Airmen at all levels should adopt a strategic thinking mindset as they approach issues within their organization. The three fundamental components of a strategic thinking mindset are:

Intellectual Flexibility. A willingness and proclivity to adjust one's understanding, opinions, or approach when conditions change or new information is presented.

Flexibility is about bending, not breaking; we can adapt and make adjustments without abandoning long-term strategy and starting from scratch.

For example, imagine a request for members of your unit to receive critical training is denied for budgetary reasons. Rather than ignoring the need for training, or simply continuing attempts to get approval for the original request, you should consider other options. Perhaps just one of your Airmen could receive the training and then teach the rest of the unit? Maybe there are other units nearby whose members have received the training who would be available to teach your Airmen?

Intellectual Inclusiveness. Welcoming of information and opinion from a broad range of sources (individuals, groups, disciplines of study, etc.).

A broad, informed perspective often requires many voices to be involved in a discussion, and a willingness to consider new or seemingly unusual sources of information.

Look beyond your immediate organization. Make use of formal and informal networks and reach out to others with relevant expertise. Maybe you have peers from past assignments who have dealt with similar issues? Maybe you have contacts within the other Services, or former instructors or classmates who could share relevant information and expertise.

Intellectual Humility. Comfort level with being wrong or having an incomplete understanding, accompanied by the tendency to check oneself, examining issues as if one's understanding is wrong in some way.

Too often we have a bias in favor of maintaining old beliefs or assumptions and need to check our tendency to react defensively to constructive feedback. Don't assume you are the smartest person in the room on a given issue (or the only smart person within the room). Ask your subordinates for candid feedback on your proposed approach. Explicitly communicate your desire to understand and consider alternate perspectives before making a decision.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.3 Strategic Thinking Mindset

Airmen at all levels should adopt a strategic thinking mindset as they approach issues within their organization. The three fundamental components of a strategic thinking mindset are:

Intellectual Flexibility. A willingness and proclivity to adjust one's understanding, opinions, or approach when conditions change or new information is presented.

Flexibility is about bending, not breaking; we can adapt and make adjustments without abandoning long-term strategy and starting from scratch.

For example, imagine a request for members of your unit to receive critical training is denied for budgetary reasons. Rather than ignoring the need for training, or simply continuing attempts to get approval for the original request, you should consider other options. Perhaps just one of your Airmen could receive the training and then teach the rest of the unit? Maybe there are other units nearby whose members have received the training who would be available to teach your Airmen?

Intellectual Inclusiveness. Welcoming of information and opinion from a broad range of sources (individuals, groups, disciplines of study, etc.).

A broad, informed perspective often requires many voices to be involved in a discussion, and a willingness to consider new or seemingly unusual sources of information.

Look beyond your immediate organization. Make use of formal and informal networks and reach out to others with relevant expertise. Maybe you have peers from past assignments who have dealt with similar issues? Maybe you have contacts within the other Services, or former instructors or classmates who could share relevant information and expertise.

Intellectual Humility. Comfort level with being wrong or having an incomplete understanding, accompanied by the tendency to check oneself, examining issues as if one's understanding is wrong in some way.

Too often we have a bias in favor of maintaining old beliefs or assumptions and need to check our tendency to react defensively to constructive feedback. Don't assume you are the smartest person in the room on a given issue (or the only smart person within the room). Ask your subordinates for candid feedback on your proposed approach. Explicitly communicate your desire to understand and consider alternate perspectives before making a decision.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.4. Strategic Thinking in Action

In practice, strategic thinking consists of four main activities: scanning, questioning, conceptualizing, and testing:

Scanning is the identification of emerging patterns in the environment. This consists of taking in, deconstructing, and synthesizing information from different sources, with the goal of applying this information to the future. Example scanning techniques could include seeking input from an expert panel and analyzing historical data to identify trends.

Questioning (asking questions of others and oneself) is needed to more fully understand an issue from different perspectives. This includes framing issues broadly, exploring problems rather than aiming to solve them immediately, and considering input from all stakeholders.

Conceptualizing potential options is needed to identify possibilities for future direction. This includes identifying a broad range of options (brainstorming), using various analytic tools and techniques to explore potential solutions, and rejecting options only after exploration.

Testing allows for informed speculation to anticipate the impact of a proposed action on organizational performance. For example, one might initially conduct a role play of how the proposed course of action would be communicated to stakeholders and how they are likely to respond. The proposed solution should be tested on a small scale (a pilot test), in order to evaluate its initial impact and to address any problems that arise in the initial implementation.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.4. Strategic Thinking in Action

In practice, strategic thinking consists of four main activities: scanning, questioning, conceptualizing, and testing:

Scanning is the identification of emerging patterns in the environment. This consists of taking in, deconstructing, and synthesizing information from different sources, with the goal of applying this information to the future. Example scanning techniques could include seeking input from an expert panel and analyzing historical data to identify trends.

Questioning (asking questions of others and oneself) is needed to more fully understand an issue from different perspectives. This includes framing issues broadly, exploring problems rather than aiming to solve them immediately, and considering input from all stakeholders.

Conceptualizing potential options is needed to identify possibilities for future direction. This includes identifying a broad range of options (brainstorming), using various analytic tools and techniques to explore potential solutions, and rejecting options only after exploration.

Testing allows for informed speculation to anticipate the impact of a proposed action on organizational performance. For example, one might initially conduct a role play of how the proposed course of action would be communicated to stakeholders and how they are likely to respond. The proposed solution should be tested on a small scale (a pilot test), in order to evaluate its initial impact and to address any problems that arise in the initial implementation.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.5. Results Focus

At the individual and team level, optimal performance requires setting goals to stay on track. But not all goals are alike. Goal setting is most likely to improve performance when goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART).

S - Specific: Specific objectives/targets should answer who is involved, what is to be accomplished, where it is to be done, when it is to be done, which requirements and constraints exist, and why (purpose) the objective is being accomplished.

M - Measurable: Establish criteria for measuring progress toward and attainment of each objective/target/milestone until the desired objective is met.

A - Attainable: Ensure applicable resources are available and objectives/tasks (within acceptable levels of risk), are possible. It may also be helpful to use action-oriented statements rather than passive voice.

Note that the term "Attainable" does not imply that goals should be easy to attain. Research has consistently found that setting difficult or challenging goals improves performance more than setting goals that are easy or only moderately difficult to meet.

R - Relevant: Link to the mission, vision, and goals and ensure they are meaningful and relevant to the user. Good objectives must be obtainable, yet purposeful.

T - Time-Bound: Provide date for completion. Targeted dates provide periodic and overall accountability.

While goal setting can improve both individual and group performance, interdependent work may require a focus on how individuals contribute to the group ("groupcentric" goals). Goals that are strictly focused on maximizing individual results ("egocentric" goals) may backfire when collaboration is needed.

For example, managers may set numeric goals for help desk technicians to resolve a certain number of help desk tickets each month. "Egocentric" goals for each individual employee to resolve a certain number of tickets may disincentive support to other team members, such as training and coaching new team members. "Groupcentric" goals for an entire work unit to resolve a certain number of tickets may be more likely to increase overall performance, by inherently incentivizing both processing tickets individually and providing support that will help other team members resolve tickets as well.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.5. Results Focus

At the individual and team level, optimal performance requires setting goals to stay on track. But not all goals are alike. Goal setting is most likely to improve performance when goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART).

S - Specific: Specific objectives/targets should answer who is involved, what is to be accomplished, where it is to be done, when it is to be done, which requirements and constraints exist, and why (purpose) the objective is being accomplished.

M - Measurable: Establish criteria for measuring progress toward and attainment of each objective/target/milestone until the desired objective is met.

A - Attainable: Ensure applicable resources are available and objectives/tasks (within acceptable levels of risk), are possible. It may also be helpful to use action-oriented statements rather than passive voice.

Note: The term "Attainable" does not imply that goals should be easy to attain. Research has consistently found that setting difficult or challenging goals improves performance more than setting goals that are easy or only moderately difficult to meet.

R - Relevant: Link to the mission, vision, and goals and ensure they are meaningful and relevant to the user. Good objectives must be obtainable, yet purposeful.

T - Time-Bound: Provide date for completion. Targeted dates provide periodic and overall accountability.

While goal setting can improve both individual and group performance, interdependent work may require a focus on how individuals contribute to the group ("groupcentric" goals). Goals that are strictly focused on maximizing individual results ("egocentric" goals) may backfire when collaboration is needed.

For example, managers may set numeric goals for help desk technicians to resolve a certain number of help desk tickets each month. "Egocentric" goals for each individual employee to resolve a certain number of tickets may disincentivize support to other team members, such as training and coaching new team members. "Groupcentric" goals for an entire work unit to resolve a certain number of tickets may be more likely to increase overall performance, by inherently incentivizing both processing tickets individually and providing support that will help other team members resolve tickets as well.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.6. Resource Management

Improving performance requires both planning and execution. For organizational change to be effective, planning and execution generally must include redesign or coordination on the following five interrelated fronts.

Organization and People. Human resources are the key to future viability and organizational growth in a continuous learning environment. Although processes and other front factors may change, focus should remain on providing workers with appropriate knowledge, skills, experiences, and tools.

Technology. Technology is a crucial enabling factor that allows compression of cycles, lead time, distance, and broader access to information and knowledge assets. Technology also eliminates barriers between customers and suppliers.

Policies, Legislation, and Regulations. Changing existing policies, regulations, and legislation may be required for new processes.

Physical Infrastructure. Physical facilities, equipment, and tools should be designed to support and maximize changes in workflow, information technology, and human resources.

Process. The flow of work and information into and throughout the organization must be redesigned using standard continuous process improvement methodologies.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.6. Resource Management

Improving performance requires both planning and execution. For organizational change to be effective, planning and execution generally must include redesign or coordination on the following five interrelated fronts.

Organization and People. Human resources are the key to future viability and organizational growth in a continuous learning environment. Although processes and other front factors may change, focus should remain on providing workers with appropriate knowledge, skills, experiences, and tools.

Technology. Technology is a crucial enabling factor that allows compression of cycles, lead time, distance, and broader access to information and knowledge assets. Technology also eliminates barriers between customers and suppliers.

Policies, Legislation, and Regulations. Changing existing policies, regulations, and legislation may be required for new processes.

Physical Infrastructure. Physical facilities, equipment, and tools should be designed to support and maximize changes in workflow, information technology, and human resources.

Process. The flow of work and information into and throughout the organization must be redesigned using standard continuous process improvement methodologies.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.7. DOTMLPF

The acronym, DOTMLPF, stands for doctrine, organization, training, material, leadership and education, personnel, and facilities. The acronym is used by the Department of Defense to describe a thought process that considers a broad spectrum of elements or requirements to generate informed, conclusive solutions to problems, future requirements, strategic direction, and performance improvement. DOTMLPF is defined as a process that considers solutions involving any combination of these elements.

DOTMLPF serves as a valuable mnemonic for staff planners to consider for certain issues prior to undertaking new efforts. Because combatant commanders define requirements in consultation with the Office of the Secretary of Defense, they are able to consider gaps in the context of strategic direction for the U.S. Armed Forces and influence the direction of requirements earlier in the acquisition process. Here is an example of how DOTMLPF would be interpreted in the military context:

Doctrine: The way we fight (emphasizing maneuver warfare, combined air-ground campaigns).

Organization: How we organize the fight (divisions, air wings, task forces).

Training: How we prepare to fight tactically (basic military training, advanced individual training, unit training, joint exercises).

Materiel: All the 'stuff' necessary to equip the forces (weapons, spares) so we can operate effectively.

Leadership and Education: How we prepare leaders to lead the fight from squad leaders to four stars (professional development).

Personnel: Availability of qualified people for peacetime, wartime, and various contingency operations.

Facilities: Real property, installations, and industrial facilities (government owned ammunition production facilities) that support the forces.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.7. Doctrine, Organization, Training, Material, Leadership and Education, Personnel, and Facilities (DOTMLPF)

The acronym, DOTMLPF is used by the Department of Defense to describe a thought process that considers a broad spectrum of elements or requirements to generate informed, conclusive solutions to problems, future requirements, strategic direction, and performance improvement. DOTMLPF is defined as a process that considers solutions involving any combination of these elements.

DOTMLPF serves as a valuable mnemonic for staff planners to consider for certain issues prior to undertaking new efforts. Because combatant commanders define requirements in consultation with the Office of the Secretary of Defense, they are able to consider gaps in the context of strategic direction for the U.S. Armed Forces and influence the direction of requirements earlier in the acquisition process. Here is an example of how DOTMLPF would be interpreted in the military context:

Doctrine: The way we fight (emphasizing maneuver warfare, combined air-ground campaigns).

Organization: How we organize the fight (divisions, air wings, task forces).

Training: How we prepare to fight tactically (basic military training, advanced individual training, unit training, joint exercises).

Materiel: All the 'stuff' necessary to equip the forces (weapons, spares) so we can operate effectively.

Leadership and Education: How we prepare leaders to lead the fight from squad leaders to four stars (professional development).

Personnel: Availability of qualified people for peacetime, wartime, and various contingency operations.

Facilities: Real property, installations, and industrial facilities (government owned ammunition production facilities) that support the forces.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.8. Organizational Structure (Balancing Precision with Flexibility)

Organizational design should be determined based on the organization's overall mission and strategy, taking into consideration the environment, size, and pace of technology.

In determining how an organization should be structured, it is important to balance the need for precision (need to maintain order, decrease ambiguity, and ensure direction is followed) with the need for flexibility (potential need to adapt quickly and encourage innovation).

The pros and cons of various organizational structures are briefly described here.

Mechanistic (Bureaucratic) Structure. A mechanistic or bureaucratic organizational structure is vertically arranged; communication and decision-making begin at the top and then filter downward. In this type of organizational structure, there is very little involvement of low-level members in decision-making, employees work in teams based on task specialty, and there is a heavy reliance on rules. The mechanistic system lends itself well to an organization where strategy or goals are geared toward efficiency and tasks need to be accomplished quickly and accurately. A stable environment that requires little flexibility is often conducive to a mechanistic structure. Also, if the size of an organization is intermediate to large, more structure may be necessary. Unfortunately, organizations with a mechanistic structure may find that job satisfaction suffers because subordinates basically do as they are told with little to no contribution to how things are done.

Organic Structure. An organic organization has horizontal and vertical communication, allowing communication to occur up and down as well as across departments and among co-workers without bureaucratic lines. Cross-talk and opinions are encouraged among employees to allow more involvement in decision-making and contribution into how things are done. The flexibility involved in day to day operations facilitates technological advancements, and allows employees to be more adaptable as changes arise. The organic organization's strategy is often geared toward innovativeness and creativity. The computer software industry is a good example of one that requires a creative design. The environment is unstable, with change being the norm rather than the exception. Organizations with organic structure are most often small to moderate, apply new technology through adaptation rather than compliance, and employ research and development that is creative rather than restrictive. The sharing of information and the participative environment increases worker satisfaction and often produces well-rounded decisions. Unfortunately, an organic structure may slow down the implementation process, lead to low efficiency, and reduce standards.

Diverse Structure. Because there are advantages and disadvantages of mechanistic and organic organizations, organizations with a diverse design incorporate both mechanistic and organic structures to accomplish the mission. The diverse design is used when the organization needs the rigid structure of the mechanistic organization in some areas and the flexibility of the organic organization in others. For example, administrative sections often have specific rules to follow when processing performance reports, decorations, and orders. For this purpose, a mechanistic system would be appropriate. In the same organization, a training section may be hindered by a rigid mechanistic system; therefore, an organic system would be more effective to allow for more frequent innovation in how training is delivered.

Matrix Structure. The matrix design is basically an organizational design or team within a mechanistic, organic, or diverse organization. A matrix design is usually best for addressing a temporary need within an organization, therefore it is short-lived, and the overall organizational structure remains intact. A matrix design brings workers from different sections or organizations together to serve a particular function. Within the matrix design, employees or team members have two bosses; the functional boss writes their performance report and schedules normal duty hours, and the project boss or team leader ensures the task at hand is accomplished appropriately. The strength of the matrix design lies in the pooling of expertise and resources; the weakness lies in the confusion of who is in charge.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.8. Organizational Structure (Balancing Precision with Flexibility)

Organizational design should be determined based on the organization's overall mission and strategy, taking into consideration the environment, size, and pace of technology.

In determining how an organization should be structured, it is important to balance the need for precision (need to maintain order, decrease ambiguity, and ensure direction is followed) with the need for flexibility (potential need to adapt quickly and encourage innovation).

The pros and cons of various organizational structures are briefly described here.

Mechanistic (Bureaucratic) Structure. A mechanistic or bureaucratic organizational structure is vertically arranged; communication and decision-making begin at the top and then filter downward. In this type of organizational structure, there is very little involvement of low-level members in decision-making, employees work in teams based on task specialty, and there is a heavy reliance on rules. The mechanistic system lends itself well to an organization where strategy or goals are geared toward efficiency and tasks need to be accomplished quickly and accurately. A stable environment that requires little flexibility is often conducive to a mechanistic structure. Also, if the size of an organization is intermediate to large, more structure may be necessary. Unfortunately, organizations with a mechanistic structure may find that job satisfaction suffers because subordinates basically do as they are told with little to no contribution to how things are done.

Organic Structure. An organic organization has horizontal and vertical communication, allowing communication to occur up and down as well as across departments and among co-workers without bureaucratic lines. Cross-talk and opinions are encouraged among employees to allow more involvement in decision-making and contribution into how things are done. The flexibility involved in day-to-day operations facilitates technological advancements, and allows employees to be more adaptable as changes arise. The organic organization's strategy is often geared toward innovativeness and creativity. The computer software industry is a good example of one that requires a creative design. The environment is unstable, with change being the norm rather than the exception. Organizations with organic structure are most often small to moderate, apply new technology through adaptation rather than compliance, and employ research and development that is creative rather than restrictive. The sharing of information and the participative environment increases worker satisfaction and often produces well-rounded decisions. Unfortunately, an organic structure may slow down the implementation process, lead to low efficiency, and reduce standards.

Diverse Structure. Because there are advantages and disadvantages of mechanistic and organic organizations, organizations with a diverse design incorporate both mechanistic and organic structures to accomplish the mission. The diverse design is used when the organization needs the rigid structure of the mechanistic organization in some areas and the flexibility of the organic organization in others. For example, administrative sections often have specific rules to follow when processing performance reports, decorations, and orders. For this purpose, a mechanistic system would be appropriate. In the same organization, a training section may be hindered by a rigid mechanistic system; therefore, an organic system would be more effective to allow for more frequent innovation in how training is delivered.

Matrix Structure. The matrix design is basically an organizational design or team within a mechanistic, organic, or diverse organization. A matrix design is usually best for addressing a temporary need within an organization; therefore, it is short-lived, and the overall organizational structure remains intact. A matrix design brings workers from different sections or organizations together to serve a particular function. Within the matrix design, employees or team members have two bosses; the functional boss writes their performance report and schedules normal duty hours, and the project boss or team leader ensures the task at hand is accomplished appropriately. The strength of the matrix design lies in the pooling of expertise and resources; the weakness lies in the confusion of who is in charge.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.9. Change Management

Change is inevitable. We know changes are taking place every day, all around us. Change is appropriate when there is a perceived gap between what the norms are and what they should be. Organizational change is not automatic. It is the deliberate adoption of a new idea or behavior by an organization and the establishment of new norms. These norms can involve technology, tasks, structure, and resources, including people. First, leaders must do their part to create an organizational climate conducive to change by explaining the limitations or shortfalls of the present process and the possibilities and benefits of the proposed change. Next, leaders must facilitate the change itself by walking Airmen through the change, explaining the details, and answering questions. Finally, leaders should show appreciation for those who contribute to the change and help refocus those who do not. Tough-minded, realistic optimism is the best quality a leader can demonstrate when coping with change.

Resistance to Change. The first reaction to change is often perceived as resistance. An essential element for preventing or overcoming resistance to change is establishing a well thought out plan. Planning enables the change agent (the person advocating for or leading the organizational change) to build confidence, anticipate questions, develop courses of action, and address opposing perceptions. Five of the most common responses to change are briefly described here.

- Distrust. Imposed change that significantly affects an organization will often be met with tough questions to ensure the change purpose and intent is clearly understood. Leaders who are not prepared to clarify or explain thought processes behind the change will not easily overcome employee doubt and will struggle to gain employee buy in.

- Uncertainty. When faced with impending change, people may experience fear of the unknown or see the change as a threat to organizational stability and their job security. Employees may wonder if they will still have a job, if they will be able to do the new job, or if they will have to learn a new program or process.

- Self-interest. People often consider the position they currently have or their role in the existing environment and question the direction and capabilities of those in positions of power after the change is implemented.

- Different Perception/No Felt Need to Change. Even if you think people recognize the need for change, they may see the situation differently, particularly if the change has been dropped on them. Maintain an environment of open communication to build support for the change and reduce the amount of employees who inwardly resist it.

- Over-Determination. Ironically, organizational structure may be a barrier to change. For example, a mechanistic structure that relies on strict procedure and lines of authority may be so rigid that it inhibits change and possibly damages professional relationships.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.9. Change Management

Change is inevitable. We know changes are taking place every day, all around us. Change is appropriate when there is a perceived gap between what the norms are and what they should be. Organizational change is not automatic. It is the deliberate adoption of a new idea or behavior by an organization and the establishment of new norms. These norms can involve technology, tasks, structure, and resources, including people. First, leaders must do their part to create an organizational climate conducive to change by explaining the limitations or shortfalls of the present process and the possibilities and benefits of the proposed change. Next, leaders must facilitate the change itself by walking Airmen through the change, explaining the details, and answering questions. Finally, leaders should show appreciation for those who contribute to the change and help refocus those who do not. Tough-minded, realistic optimism is the best quality a leader can demonstrate when coping with change.

Resistance to Change. The first reaction to change is often perceived as resistance. An essential element for preventing or overcoming resistance to change is establishing a well thought out plan. Planning enables the change agent (the person advocating for or leading the organizational change) to build confidence, anticipate questions, develop courses of action, and address opposing perceptions. Five of the most common responses to change are briefly described here.

- Distrust. Imposed change that significantly affects an organization will often be met with tough questions to ensure the change purpose and intent is clearly understood. Leaders who are not prepared to clarify or explain thought processes behind the change will not easily overcome employee doubt and will struggle to gain employee buy in.

- Uncertainty. When faced with impending change, people may experience fear of the unknown or see the change as a threat to organizational stability and their job security. Employees may wonder if they will still have a job, if they will be able to do the new job, or if they will have to learn a new program or process.

- Self-interest. People often consider the position they currently have or their role in the existing environment and question the direction and capabilities of those in positions of power after the change is implemented.

- Different Perception/No Felt Need to Change. Even if you think people recognize the need for change, they may see the situation differently, particularly if the change has been dropped on them. Maintain an environment of open communication to build support for the change and reduce the amount of employees who inwardly resist it.

- Over-Determination. Ironically, organizational structure may be a barrier to change. For example, a mechanistic structure that relies on strict procedure and lines of authority may be so rigid that it inhibits change and possibly damages professional relationships.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.10. Reducing Perceived Resistance to Change

Successful change management depends on addressing causes of resistance and improving the change implementation process. There are several approaches leaders can take to implement change successfully.

Education and Communication. Open communication is necessary throughout the change process and helps reduce uncertainty. Educating people about the need for and expected results of a change should reduce resistance.

Participation and Involvement. Leaders reduce resistance by actively involving those affected in designing and implementing change. Involving people in the change process helps generate ownership and commitment to the change.

Facilitation and Support. Leaders should introduce the change to employees gradually and provide additional training, if needed. Reinforcement and encouragement help facilitate the power of high expectations throughout the organization.

Negotiation and Agreement. Leaders may choose to offer incentives to those who continue to resist the change. In difficult times, negotiated agreements can help focus and remind employees of the changes agreed upon as the change process progresses.

Coercion. Coercion is a forcing technique used to make employees accept change. Coercion can negatively affect attitudes and can potentially cause long-term negative consequences. Coerced compliance is not recommended and requires constant leadership oversight to ensure the change remains in effect.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.10. Reducing Perceived Resistance to Change

Successful change management depends on addressing causes of resistance and improving the change implementation process. There are several approaches leaders can take to implement change successfully.

Education and Communication. Open communication is necessary throughout the change process and helps reduce uncertainty. Educating people about the need for and expected results of a change should reduce resistance.

Participation and Involvement. Leaders reduce resistance by actively involving those affected in designing and implementing change. Involving people in the change process helps generate ownership and commitment to the change.

Facilitation and Support. Leaders should introduce the change to employees gradually and provide additional training, if needed. Reinforcement and encouragement help facilitate the power of high expectations throughout the organization.

Negotiation and Agreement. Leaders may choose to offer incentives to those who continue to resist the change. In difficult times, negotiated agreements can help focus and remind employees of the changes agreed upon as the change process progresses.

Coercion. Coercion is a forcing technique used to make employees accept change. Coercion can negatively affect attitudes and can potentially cause long-term negative consequences. Coerced compliance is not recommended and requires constant leadership oversight to ensure the change remains in effect.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.11. Three-Stage Change Process

Although there are a wide range of various change processes, the change process model proposed by renowned social psychologist, Kurt Lewin, recommended leaders view change as a three-stage process: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. In the three-stage change process, leaders (change agents) must analyze restraining or opposing forces and devise ways to reduce them to overcome resistance. At the same time, leaders must recognize and strengthen supporting forces, which are those forces pushing toward change. After analyzing the forces for and against change, and developing a strategy to deal with them, leaders can attend to the change itself.

Stage 1: Unfreezing. Once the need for change is recognized, the three-stage change process begins with unfreezing. Unfreezing is a deliberate management activity to prepare people for change by knowing and going where issues may exists. The most neglected, yet essential part of unfreezing is creating an environment where people feel the need for change. A key factor in unfreezing involves making people knowledgeable about the importance of a change and how it will affect their jobs or the overall organizational structure. By pointing out problems or challenges that currently exist in the organization, leaders are able to generate a need in the people who will feel the greatest effect of the change.

Stage 2: Changing. After unfreezing, the next stage in the three-stage change process is changing. The changing stage involves modifying technology, tasks, structure, or distribution of people. During the changing stage, the organization moves from the old state or the previous norms, to the new state by installing new equipment, restructuring work centers, or implementing procedures. In short, changing is anything that alters the previously accepted status quo. The change agent in this stage is essential.

Change needs to be monitored as it occurs by paying close attention to the people most affected by the change. Signs of implementing the change too early may include negative reactions from employees. In some instances, systems are not completely ready and production may bog down. Be prepared to receive and respond to feedback in any number of forms to ensure the change unfolds as successfully as possible. Being involved and available throughout the process will allow leaders to react quickly to issues as well as provide support to employees who are dealing with the issues of the change firsthand. Encouragement and involvement in the changing stage may be very similar to that applied during the unfreezing stage.

Note: It is a leader's responsibility to be receptive to the needs of the organization and its employees. Readdressing unfreezing techniques is better than forcing a change that causes more problems than it resolves.

Stage 3: Refreezing. The third and final stage in the three-stage change process is refreezing. After implementing a change, it is time to lock in (or refreeze) the desired outcomes and the new norms so they become permanent. Actively encouraging and reinforcing the use of new techniques is a way of helping the new behavior stick. A critical step in refreezing is remaining engaged and evaluating results to determine if the change reached the desired effect or if the new process needs more support, instruction, training, or time. Positively reinforcing desired outcomes is crucial during the refreezing stage. Rewarding people when they do something in alignment with the change emphasizes the value of the new procedures or behaviors and helps freeze them into place. Highlighting successful change helps reduce the desire to return to the old way of doing things. In many cases, the change agent can call attention to the success of the change and show where it works while also being receptive to feedback and areas that may cause lingering issues or continued frustration. In this case, the change agent must evaluate results, reinforce the desired outcomes, and make constructive modifications, as needed.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.11. Three-Stage Change Process

Although there are a wide range of various change processes, the change process model proposed by renowned social psychologist, Kurt Lewin, recommended leaders view change as a three-stage process: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. In the three-stage change process, leaders (change agents) must analyze restraining or opposing forces and devise ways to reduce them to overcome resistance. At the same time, leaders must recognize and strengthen supporting forces, which are those forces pushing toward change. After analyzing the forces for and against change, and developing a strategy to deal with them, leaders can attend to the change itself.

Stage 1: Unfreezing. Once the need for change is recognized, the three-stage change process begins with unfreezing. Unfreezing is a deliberate management activity to prepare people for change by knowing and going where issues may exist. The most neglected, yet essential part of unfreezing is creating an environment where people feel the need for change. A key factor in unfreezing involves making people knowledgeable about the importance of a change and how it will affect their jobs or the overall organizational structure. By pointing out problems or challenges that currently exist in the organization, leaders are able to generate a need in the people who will feel the greatest effect of the change.

Stage 2: Changing. After unfreezing, the next stage in the three-stage change process is changing. The changing stage involves modifying technology, tasks, structure, or distribution of people. During the changing stage, the organization moves from the old state or the previous norms, to the new state by installing new equipment, restructuring work centers, or implementing procedures. In short, changing is anything that alters the previously accepted status quo. The change agent in this stage is essential.

Change needs to be monitored as it occurs by paying close attention to the people most affected by the change. Signs of implementing the change too early may include negative reactions from employees. In some instances, systems are not completely ready and production may bog down. Be prepared to receive and respond to feedback in any number of forms to ensure the change unfolds as successfully as possible. Being involved and available throughout the process will allow leaders to react quickly to issues as well as provide support to employees who are dealing with the issues of the change firsthand. Encouragement and involvement in the changing stage may be very similar to that applied during the unfreezing stage.

Note: It is a leader's responsibility to be receptive to the needs of the organization and its employees. Readdressing unfreezing techniques is better than forcing a change that causes more problems than it resolves.

Stage 3: Refreezing. The third and final stage in the three-stage change process is refreezing. After implementing a change, it is time to lock in (or refreeze) the desired outcomes and the new norms so they become permanent. Actively encouraging and reinforcing the use of new techniques is a way of helping the new behavior stick. A critical step in refreezing is remaining engaged and evaluating results to determine if the change reached the desired effect or if the new process needs more support, instruction, training, or time. Positively reinforcing desired outcomes is crucial during the refreezing stage. Rewarding people when they do something in alignment with the change emphasizes the value of the new procedures or behaviors and helps freeze them into place. Highlighting successful change helps reduce the desire to return to the old way of doing things. In many cases, the change agent can call attention to the success of the change and show where it works while also being receptive to feedback and areas that may cause lingering issues or continued frustration. In this case, the change agent must evaluate results, reinforce the desired outcomes, and make constructive modifications, as needed.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.12. Continuous Improvement

The use of Continuous Improvement (CI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the Air Force mission. CI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is an Airmen Leadership Quality, is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities) and is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System).

Continuous Improvement Methodologies. Air Force CI incorporates aspects of four major methodologies to assist with organizational change. A practical problem solving method may simultaneously draw from more than one of these CI processes.

- Lean. Lean is a methodology focused on work flow, customer value, and eliminating process waste. Lean is unique from traditional process improvement strategies in that the primary focus is on eliminating non-value added activities.

- Six Sigma. Six sigma is a rigorous, data-driven methodology for process improvement focused on minimizing waste through identifying, controlling, and reducing process variation.

- Business Process Reengineering. Business process reengineering is a comprehensive process requiring a change in the fundamental way business processes are performed. Business process reengineering identifies unnecessary activities and eliminates them wherever possible.

- Theory of Constraints. Theory of constraints is a systematic approach to optimize resource utilization by identifying, exploiting, subordinating, elevating, and reassessing constraints (bottlenecks) in the process.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.12. Continuous Improvement

The use of Continuous Improvement (CI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the USAF mission. CI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is an Airmen Leadership Quality, is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities, 8 May 2014) and is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System, 29 January 2021).

Continuous Improvement Methodologies. USAF CI incorporates aspects of four major methodologies to assist with organizational change. A practical problem-solving method may simultaneously draw from more than one of these CI processes.

- Lean. Lean is a methodology focused on work flow, customer value, and eliminating process waste. Lean is unique from traditional process improvement strategies in that the primary focus is on eliminating non-value added activities.

- Six Sigma. Six sigma is a rigorous, data-driven methodology for process improvement focused on minimizing waste through identifying, controlling, and reducing process variation.

- Business Process Reengineering. Business process reengineering is a comprehensive process requiring a change in the fundamental way business processes are performed. Business process reengineering identifies unnecessary activities and eliminates them wherever possible.

- Theory of Constraints. Theory of constraints is a systematic approach to optimize resource utilization by identifying, exploiting, subordinating, elevating, and reassessing constraints (bottlenecks) in the process.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.13. Practical Problem Solving Method

At the core of Air Force CI is the practical problem solving method, a standardized and structured approach to problem solving used by global industry leaders, and adopted by DoD. The practical problem solving method, as shown in Figure 12.1., is an eight-step process used to clarify problems, identify root causes, and develop appropriate countermeasures to achieve change.

Note that the Osborn-Parnes convergent and divergent thinking techniques described in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be useful during many steps in this process.

Step 1-Clarify and Validate the Problem. The first step to effective problem-solving is to clearly understand the problem, often best accomplished by developing a problem statement. A well-defined problem statement uses data to identify where the problem is occurring, determine the impact of the problem, and compare performance against a standard with scope and direction. A problem statement does not assume a root cause, solution, or countermeasure, but should include visual tools to depict the current state. The who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem statement should be validated by data. This is done by collecting and analyzing data to validate the existence and magnitude of the problem. If data does not exist, the effort should be paused to collect and analyze the needed data before moving forward. This step incorporates the Mess Finding, Data Finding, and Problem Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Step 2-Break Down Problem and Identify Performance Gaps. Understanding what appropriate data is required and the ability to interpret that data is paramount to performance gap analysis. Step 2 effectively frames and supports the problem in Step 1. Once the problem statement has been identified and answers the who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem, further analyze the data in comparison to the expected outcome. The expected outcome is the objective from which to measure the gap between the current state and end state (the expected outcome) and highlight opportunities for improvements (also called the performance gap).

Step 3-Set Improvement Targets. Air Force leaders establish a vision of what an organization will strive to become (the ideal state). In Step 3, process owners or project managers set improvement targets based on expected outcomes and strategic goals and objectives. Targets help define the required performance levels to achieve the desired end state. Targets should be challenging but achievable.

Step 4-Determine Root Cause. Air Force leaders often find themselves addressing problems which have been solved many times when previous problem-solving efforts were directed at symptoms of a problem rather than root causes. Root cause analysis often involves applying a tradeoff between digging as deeply as possible as opposed to finding the deepest point within the team's sphere of influence. The correct root cause should be validated by using the same data used to define the problem in Step 1.

Step 5-Develop Countermeasures. Step 5 is where potential root causes are addressed with countermeasures. Consideration should be given to the most practical, efficient, and effective countermeasures. Valid countermeasures will close performance gaps and should move the organization closer to the ideal state. When developing countermeasures, strive for process improvement change that is sustainable and repeatable. At the end of Step 5, obtain a vector check to ensure strategic alignment with the desired outcome is still moving in the appropriate direction. Remember, the impact of a solution is a combination of the quality of the solution and the acceptance of the solution by people who implement it. Judiciously involving employees in the development of countermeasures generates buy-in and ownership of the solution and its success. This step incorporates the Idea Finding, Solution Finding, and Acceptance Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Note that the techniques discussed in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be particularly useful when developing countermeasures. Defer judgment and allow a period of time to let ideas flow freely (brainstorm potential countermeasures, even those that may seem odd or unusual) before evaluating and selecting a solution.

Step 6-See Countermeasures Through. Step 6 is seeing countermeasures through to execution and tracking detailed implementation plans for each countermeasure approved in Step 5. Reviews and progress checks should be updated regularly on all tasks until countermeasures have been implemented, or until deemed unnecessary.

Step 7-Confirm Results and Process. Step 7 compares the results of implemented countermeasures to the identified performance gaps, improvement objectives/targets, and the expected outcome. Sustainability and repeatability of the improved process should be verified. Results are measured by data and analyzed to confirm the project's intent. Processes should be monitored for performance relative to the baseline developed in Steps 1 and 2, relative to targets established in Step 3, and relative to the solution implementation. Illustrate confirmed results with appropriate data tools which link back to performance gaps and improvement targets. Incorrect root-cause determination is the most common mistake made during CI efforts. If targets are not met, it may be necessary to return to Step 4.

Step 8-Standardize Successful Processes. Step 8 is the most commonly neglected step of the entire practical problem solving method; however, it is important to ensure the results of the efforts made in previous steps are codified. In Step 8, consider the answers to following three questions:

- What is needed to standardize the improvements? Possible answers may include a submission to the Airmen Powered by Innovation Program or change requests for technical orders, instructions, manuals, materiel, and suppliers.

- How should improvements and lessons learned be communicated? The wing process manager should be made aware of the success. Inputting information into the Air Force CI portal, conducting key meetings, writing publications, utilizing public affairs, informing the chain of command, or populating data collection sites.

- Were other opportunities or problems identified by the problem-solving model? This project may have identified additional problem-solving opportunities that should be recognized and addressed.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.13. Practical Problem Solving Method

At the core of USAF CI is the practical problem solving method, a standardized and structured approach to problem solving used by global industry leaders, and adopted by DoD. The practical problem solving method, as shown in Figure 12.1., is an eight-step process used to clarify problems, identify root causes, and develop appropriate countermeasures to achieve change.

Note: The Osborn-Parnes convergent and divergent thinking techniques described in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be useful during many steps in this process.

Step 1-Clarify and Validate the Problem. The first step to effective problem-solving is to clearly understand the problem, often best accomplished by developing a problem statement. A well-defined problem statement uses data to identify where the problem is occurring, determine the impact of the problem, and compare performance against a standard with scope and direction. A problem statement does not assume a root cause, solution, or countermeasure, but should include visual tools to depict the current state. The who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem statement should be validated by data. This is done by collecting and analyzing data to validate the existence and magnitude of the problem. If data does not exist, the effort should be paused to collect and analyze the needed data before moving forward. This step incorporates the Mess Finding, Data Finding, and Problem Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Step 2-Break Down Problem and Identify Performance Gaps. Understanding what appropriate data is required and the ability to interpret that data is paramount to performance gap analysis. Step 2 effectively frames and supports the problem in Step 1. Once the problem statement has been identified and answers the who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem, further analyze the data in comparison to the expected outcome. The expected outcome is the objective from which to measure the gap between the current state and end state (the expected outcome) and highlight opportunities for improvements (also called the performance gap).

Step 3-Set Improvement Targets. USAF leaders establish a vision of what an organization will strive to become (the ideal state). In Step 3, process owners or project managers set improvement targets based on expected outcomes and strategic goals and objectives. Targets help define the required performance levels to achieve the desired end state. Targets should be challenging but achievable.

Step 4-Determine Root Cause. USAF leaders often find themselves addressing problems which have been solved many times when previous problem-solving efforts were directed at symptoms of a problem rather than root causes. Root cause analysis often involves applying a tradeoff between digging as deeply as possible as opposed to finding the deepest point within the team's sphere of influence. The correct root cause should be validated by using the same data used to define the problem in Step 1.

Step 5-Develop Countermeasures. Step 5 is where potential root causes are addressed with countermeasures. Consideration should be given to the most practical, efficient, and effective countermeasures. Valid countermeasures will close performance gaps and should move the organization closer to the ideal state. When developing countermeasures, strive for process improvement change that is sustainable and repeatable. At the end of Step 5, obtain a vector check to ensure strategic alignment with the desired outcome is still moving in the appropriate direction. Remember, the impact of a solution is a combination of the quality of the solution and the acceptance of the solution by people who implement it. Judiciously involving employees in the development of countermeasures generates buy-in and ownership of the solution and its success. This step incorporates the Idea Finding, Solution Finding, and Acceptance Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Note: Techniques discussed in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be particularly useful when developing countermeasures. Defer judgment and allow a period of time to let ideas flow freely (brainstorm potential countermeasures, even those that may seem odd or unusual) before evaluating and selecting a solution.

Step 6-See Countermeasures Through. Step 6 is seeing countermeasures through to execution and tracking detailed implementation plans for each countermeasure approved in Step 5. Reviews and progress checks should be updated regularly on all tasks until countermeasures have been implemented, or until deemed unnecessary.

Step 7-Confirm Results and Process. Step 7 compares the results of implemented countermeasures to the identified performance gaps, improvement objectives/targets, and the expected outcome. Sustainability and repeatability of the improved process should be verified. Results are measured by data and analyzed to confirm the project's intent. Processes should be monitored for performance relative to the baseline developed in Steps 1 and 2, relative to targets established in Step 3, and relative to the solution implementation. Illustrate confirmed results with appropriate data tools which link back to performance gaps and improvement targets. Incorrect root-cause determination is the most common mistake made during CI efforts. If targets are not met, it may be necessary to return to Step 4.

Step 8-Standardize Successful Processes. Step 8 is the most commonly neglected step of the entire practical problem solving method; however, it is important to ensure the results of the efforts made in previous steps are codified. In Step 8, consider the answers to following three questions:

What is needed to standardize the improvements? Possible answers may include a submission to the Airmen Powered by Innovation Program or change requests for technical orders, instructions, manuals, materiel, and suppliers.

How should improvements and lessons learned be communicated? The wing process manager should be made aware of the success. Inputting information into the USAF CI portal, conducting key meetings, writing publications, utilizing public affairs, informing the chain of command, or populating data collection sites.

Were other opportunities or problems identified by the problem-solving model? This project may have identified additional problem-solving opportunities that should be recognized and addressed.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.14. Levels of Problem Solving

Consistently applied, the Practical Problem Solving Method provides an excellent tool for making data-driven decisions with regard to management, process change, and the sharing of best practices, ensuring actions lead to the desired results with minimal waste. It also ensures the results are aligned with the needs of the organization. Three different levels of effort are available for accomplishing this method initiative. As a standardized template for solving problems and performing process improvement initiatives, the Practical Problem Solving Method is flexible enough to be effective at any of the following three levels.

Just Do It: Also called point improvement, the 'just do it' approach involves one person (or a small team) and can be accomplished in less than a day. Examples could be using torque wrenches instead of adjustable wrenches or routing paperwork electronically rather than through physical distribution channels.

Rapid Improvement Event: A rapid improvement event consists of a small team of individuals, usually subject matter experts, and can be accomplished in less than a week. It is designed to develop and implement countermeasures after appropriate project preparations have been made. Examples could be improving aircraft servicing cycle times or improving first-time pass yields on task management tool taskers.

Improvement Project: The 'improvement project' setting requires a large team and is conducted over a longer period of time. Examples could be shortening aircraft annual overhaul cycle time or writing software to track annual overhauls.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.14. Levels of Problem Solving

Consistently applied, the Practical Problem Solving Method provides an excellent tool for making data-driven decisions with regard to management, process change, and the sharing of best practices, ensuring actions lead to the desired results with minimal waste. It also ensures the results are aligned with the needs of the organization. Three different levels of effort are available for accomplishing this method initiative. As a standardized template for solving problems and performing process improvement initiatives, the Practical Problem Solving Method is flexible enough to be effective at any of the following three levels.

Just Do It: Also called point improvement, the 'just do it' approach involves one person (or a small team) and can be accomplished in less than a day. Examples could be using torque wrenches instead of adjustable wrenches or routing paperwork electronically rather than through physical distribution channels.

Rapid Improvement Event: A rapid improvement event consists of a small team of individuals, usually subject matter experts, and can be accomplished in less than a week. It is designed to develop and implement countermeasures after appropriate project preparations have been made. Examples could be improving aircraft servicing cycle times or improving first-time pass yields on task management tool taskers.

Improvement Project: The 'improvement project' setting requires a large team and is conducted over a longer period of time. Examples could be shortening aircraft annual overhaul cycle time or writing software to track annual overhauls.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.15. Project Management

Although there are many definitions of project management, for the purpose of this reading project management is defined as the process of leading, coordinating, planning, and controlling a diverse and complex set of processes and people in the pursuit of achieving an established objective. With this definition in mind, it is important to emphasize that a project is not a program; programs are ongoing. A project is temporary, based on an established objective that has a generalized time frame attached to it.

Project Management Steps. Project management uses a unique array of terminology to identify and communicate its principles and uses. Basic terminology is primarily found in the steps of project management and is explained below.

- Define the Project Objective. Identify the objective or improvement to be achieved by the project. What is being satisfied by the project? What is the expected outcome?

- Develop Solution Options. How many ways might you go about solving the problem? Of the available alternatives, which do you think will best solve the problem?

- Plan the Project. Planning is nothing more than answering questions-what must be done, by whom, how, for how much, when, and so on.

- Execute the Plan. People sometimes go to great lengths and effort to put together a plan, but then fail to follow it. Follow your plan.

- Monitor and Control Progress. The project manager must monitor and control by being present and making appropriate decisions. This is where to determine whether or not the plan was sound and make adjustments. Are we on target? If not, what must be done? Should the plan be changed/modified? What else have we learned?

- Close the Project. Once the objective has been achieved, there is still a final step that should be taken. Document and discuss lessons learned-what went well, what didn't, and what should be addressed.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.15. Project Management

Although there are many definitions of project management, for the purpose of this reading project management is defined as the process of leading, coordinating, planning, and controlling a diverse and complex set of processes and people in the pursuit of achieving an established objective. With this definition in mind, it is important to emphasize that a project is not a program; programs are ongoing. A project is temporary, based on an established objective that has a generalized time frame attached to it.

Project Management Steps. Project management uses a unique array of terminology to identify and communicate its principles and uses. Basic terminology is primarily found in the steps of project management and is explained below.

- Define the Project Objective. Identify the objective or improvement to be achieved by the project. What is being satisfied by the project? What is the expected outcome?

- Develop Solution Options. How many ways might you go about solving the problem? Of the available alternatives, which do you think will best solve the problem?

- Plan the Project. Planning is nothing more than answering questions-what must be done, by whom, how, for how much, when, and so on.

- Execute the Plan. People sometimes go to great lengths and effort to put together a plan, but then fail to follow it. Follow your plan.

- Monitor and Control Progress. The project manager must monitor and control by being present and making appropriate decisions. This is where to determine whether or not the plan was sound and make adjustments. Are we on target? If not, what must be done? Should the plan be changed/modified? What else have we learned?

- Close the Project. Once the objective has been achieved, there is still a final step that should be taken. Document and discuss lessons learned-what went well, what didn't, and what should be addressed.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.16. Project Management Constraints

Constraints are numerous for all activities we endeavor, but constraint consideration is crucial for project management. Quality, time, and cost are among the main constraints most often realized in project management.

Quality. Quality refers to being in accordance with the requirement - the specifications.

Time. Time refers to the amount of time you have to complete the project.

Cost. Cost refers to your resource constraints, to include: money, manpower, machinery, and materials.

One of the constraints (Quality, Time, or Cost) will be your driver for the project. The driving constraint for your project will have an impact on the other two constraints. Ensure you take this into consideration when making decisions about the project's objective and adjust the management of your project accordingly. It is incumbent upon a project manager to provide leadership and use good team-building techniques to establish a sound project objective and generate the solution options necessary to achieve those objectives.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.16. Project Management Constraints

Constraints are numerous for all activities we endeavor, but constraint consideration is crucial for project management. Quality, time, and cost are among the main constraints most often realized in project management.

Quality. Quality refers to being in accordance with the requirement - the specifications.

Time. Time refers to the amount of time you have to complete the project.

Cost. Cost refers to your resource constraints, to include: money, manpower, machinery, and materials.

One of the constraints (Quality, Time, or Cost) will be your driver for the project. The driving constraint for your project will have an impact on the other two constraints. Ensure you take this into consideration when making decisions about the project's objective and adjust the management of your project accordingly. It is incumbent upon a project manager to provide leadership and use good team-building techniques to establish a sound project objective and generate the solution options necessary to achieve those objectives.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.17. Project Management Planning

Once options are developed, the most important and time-consuming aspect of project management must occur-planning the project. Planning a project involves activities that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how. Techniques of special importance to use during planning are gathering important information, creating a work breakdown structure, and conducting a task analysis. Regardless of the method of planning used, the completion of the tasks in a sense of order and timeliness, made foreseeable through the task analysis, ensures project completion is more likely to succeed.

Work Breakdown Structure. A work breakdown structure is a technique based on dividing a project into sub-units or work packages. Since all the elements required to complete the project are identified in the work breakdown structure, the chances of neglecting or overlooking an essential step are minimized. A work breakdown structure is typically constructed with two or three levels of detail, although more levels are common, depending on the complexity of a project. Such a structure for your project will permit you and others who see the work breakdown structure to readily identify what needs to be done, spot omissions which might later affect the outcome of the project, and make suggestions for improving and expanding the work breakdown structure. The amount of breakdown is an element the project manager and the project team must decide upon.

Task Analysis. Similar to the work breakdown structure, the amount of detail needed for a task analysis depends on the task involved and the desires of the project manager and project team. The more complex the project, the greater the importance of detailed task analysis. Information contained in the task analysis, which is not depicted in a work breakdown structure, includes task milestones, how the milestones can be measured, and resources or requirements. Project managers may delegate the task analysis for each task to the appropriate person. Once compiled, final decisions on task assignments and budgetary concerns can be addressed. The task analysis is what provides the crucial information for determining how the tasks of the project interrelate. It is imperative to establish the proper sequencing of tasks prior to beginning a project to ensure the efficiency of the project.

2022 E6 Study Guide

12.17. Project Management Planning

Once options are developed, the most important and time-consuming aspect of project management must occur-planning the project. Planning a project involves activities that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how. Techniques of special importance to use during planning are gathering important information, creating a work breakdown structure, and conducting a task analysis. Regardless of the method of planning used, the completion of the tasks in a sense of order and timeliness, made foreseeable through the task analysis, ensures project completion is more likely to succeed.

Work Breakdown Structure. A work breakdown structure is a technique based on dividing a project into sub-units or work packages. Since all the elements required to complete the project are identified in the work breakdown structure, the chances of neglecting or overlooking an essential step are minimized. A work breakdown structure is typically constructed with two or three levels of detail, although more levels are common, depending on the complexity of a project. Such a structure for your project will permit you and others who see the work breakdown structure to readily identify what needs to be done, spot omissions which might later affect the outcome of the project, and make suggestions for improving and expanding the work breakdown structure. The amount of breakdown is an element the project manager and the project team must decide upon.

Task Analysis. Similar to the work breakdown structure, the amount of detail needed for a task analysis depends on the task involved and the desires of the project manager and project team. The more complex the project, the greater the importance of detailed task analysis. Information contained in the task analysis, which is not depicted in a work breakdown structure, includes task milestones, how the milestones can be measured, and resources or requirements. Project managers may delegate the task analysis for each task to the appropriate person. Once compiled, final decisions on task assignments and budgetary concerns can be addressed. The task analysis is what provides the crucial information for determining how the tasks of the project interrelate. It is imperative to establish the proper sequencing of tasks prior to beginning a project to ensure the efficiency of the project.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.1. Managing the Work Environment

Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading, and controlling resources within an entity with the overall aim of achieving established goals. Organizational management provides leaders the ability to make decisions and resolve issues effectively for the benefit of the organization and its employees.

While some enlisted members may think of strategic thinking as "above their pay grade," thinking strategically is important when establishing goals, and planning how to achieve them, within any unit or work center. Strategic thinking can be applied at any level, across an entire enterprise or on a specific project.

2019 AFH-1

13.1. Managing the Work Environment

Organizational management is the process of organizing, planning, leading, and controlling resources within an entity with the overall aim of achieving established objectives. Organizational management provides leaders the ability to make decisions and resolve issues effectively for the benefit of the organization and its employees.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.2 Strategic Thinking

Strategic Thinking refers to thinking on both a large and small scale, long- and short-term in order to identify and achieve desired goals.

When retired Air Force general officers were asked to think of the Airmen they had worked with during their career who most exceled at Strategic Thinking, they indicated that those Airmen exceled at:

2019 AFH-1

Not In 2019 AFH-1

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.3 Strategic Thinking Mindset

Airmen at all levels should adopt a strategic thinking mindset as they approach issues within their organization. The three fundamental components of a strategic thinking mindset are:

Intellectual Flexibility. A willingness and proclivity to adjust one's understanding, opinions, or approach when conditions change or new information is presented.

Flexibility is about bending, not breaking; we can adapt and make adjustments without abandoning long-term strategy and starting from scratch.

For example, imagine a request for members of your unit to receive critical training is denied for budgetary reasons. Rather than ignoring the need for training, or simply continuing attempts to get approval for the original request, you should consider other options. Perhaps just one of your Airmen could receive the training and then teach the rest of the unit. Maybe there are other units nearby whose members have received the training who would be available to teach your Airmen.

Intellectual Inclusiveness. Welcoming of information and opinion from a broad range of sources (individuals, groups, disciplines of study, etc.).

A broad, informed perspective often requires many voices to be involved in a discussion, and a willingness to consider new or seemingly unusual sources of information.

Look beyond your immediate organization. Make use of formal and informal networks and reach out to others with relevant expertise. Maybe you have peers from past assignments who have dealt with similar issues. Maybe you have contacts within the other Services, or former instructors or classmates who could share relevant information and expertise.

Intellectual Humility. Comfort level with being wrong or having an incomplete understanding, accompanied by the tendency to check oneself, examining issues as if one's understanding is wrong insome way.

Too often we have a bias in favor of maintaining old beliefs or assumptions and need to check our tendency to react defensively to constructive feedback. Don't assume you are the smartest person in the room on a given issue (or the only smart person within the room). Ask your subordinates for candid feedback on your proposed approach. Explicitly communicate your desire to understand and consider alternate perspectives before making a decision.

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2021 E6 Study Guide

12.4. Strategic Thinking in Action

In practice, strategic thinking consists of four main activities: scanning, questioning, conceptualizing, and testing:

Scanning is the identification of emerging patterns in the environment. This consists of taking in, deconstructing, and synthesizing information from different sources, with the goal of applying this information to the future. Example scanning techniques could include seeking input from an expert panel and analyzing historical data to identify trends.

Questioning (asking questions of others and oneself) is needed to more fully understand an issue from different perspectives. This includes framing issues broadly, exploring problems rather than aiming to solve them immediately, and considering input from all stakeholders.

Conceptualizing potential options is needed to identify possibilities for future direction. This includes identifying a broad range of options (brainstorming), using various analytic tools and techniques to explore potential solutions, and rejecting options only after exploration.

Testing allows for informed speculation to anticipate the impact of a proposed action on organizational performance. For example, one might initially conduct a role play of how the proposed course of action would be communicated to stakeholders and how they are likely to respond. The proposed solution should be tested on a small scale (a pilot test), in order to evaluate its initial impact and to address any problems that arise in the initial implementation.

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2021 E6 Study Guide

12.5. Results Focus

At the individual and team level, optimal performance requires setting goals to stay on track. But not all goals are alike. Goal setting is most likely to improve performance when goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART).

S - Specific: Specific objectives/targets should answer who is involved, what is to be accomplished, where it is to be done, when it is to be done, which requirements and constraints exist, and why (purpose) the objective is being accomplished.

M - Measurable: Establish criteria for measuring progress toward and attainment of each objective/ target/ milestone until the desired objective is met.

A - Attainable: Ensure applicable resources are available and objectives/tasks (within acceptable levels of risk), are possible. It may also be helpful to use action-oriented statements rather than passive voice.

Note that the term "Attainable" does not imply that goals should be easy to attain. Research has consistently found that setting difficult or challenging goals improves performance more than setting goals that are easy or only moderately difficult to meet.

R - Relevant: Link to the mission, vision, and goals and ensure they are meaningful and relevant to the user. Good objectives must be obtainable, yet purposeful.

T - Time-Bound: Provide date for completion. Targeted dates provide periodic and overall accountability.

While goal setting can improve both individual and group performance, interdependent work may require a focus on how individuals contribute to the group ("groupcentric" goals). Goals that are strictly focused on maximizing individual results ("egocentric" goals) may backfire when collaboration is needed.

For example, managers may set numeric goals for help desk technicians to resolve a certain number of help desk tickets each month. "Egocentric" goals for each individual employee to resolve a certain number of tickets may disincentive support to other team members, such as training and coaching new team members. "Groupcentric" goals for an entire work unit to resolve a certain number of tickets may be more likely to increase overall performance, by inherently incentivizing both processing tickets individually and providing support that will help other team members resolve tickets as well.

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13.17. Project Management Planning

Once options are developed, the most important and time-consuming aspect of project management must occur -planning the project. Planning a project involves activities that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how. Techniques of special importance to use during planning are gathering important information, creating a work breakdown structure, and conducting a task analysis. Regardless of the method of planning used, the completion of the tasks in a sense of order and timeliness, made foreseeable through the task analysis, ensures project completion is more likely to succeed.

B-SMART Objectives. Ultimately, the goal of project management is to achieve the objective of the project in the most logical, sensible manner. Once realization of the steps of project management is attained, accomplishing these steps requires understanding of B-SMART terminology. Throughout any project, beginning with Step 1, the concept of B-SMART should be taken into consideration. B-SMART is an acronym, which has been given a number of equally valuable meanings, depending on the context or circumstances.

B - Balanced: Ensure goals are bold yet balanced across the multiple fronts of organizational output and multiple targets.

S - Specific: Specific objectives/targets should answer who is involved, what is to be accomplished, where it is to be done, when it is to be done, which requirements and constraints exist, and why (purpose) the objective is being accomplished.

M - Measurable: Establish criteria for measuring progress toward and attainment of each objective/ target/ milestone until the desired objective is met.

A - Attainable: Ensure applicable resources are available and objectives/tasks (within acceptable levels of risk), are possible. It may also be helpful to use action-oriented statements rather than passive voice.

R - Results Focused: Link to the mission, vision, and goals and ensure they are meaningful and relevant to the user. Good objectives must be obtainable, yet purposeful.

T - Time-Bound: Provide date for completion. Targeted dates provide periodic and overall accountability.

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12.6. Resource Management

Improving performance requires both planning and execution. For organizational change to be effective, planning and execution generally must include redesign or coordination on the followingfive interrelated fronts.

Organization and People. Human resources are the key to future viability and organizational growth in a continuous learning environment. Although processes and other front factors may change, focus should remain on providing workers with appropriate knowledge, skills, experiences, and tools.

Technology. Technology is a crucial enabling factor that allows compression of cycles, lead time, distance, and broader access to information and knowledge assets. Technology also eliminates barriers between customers and suppliers.

Policies, Legislation, and Regulations. Changing existing policies, regulations, and legislation may be required for new processes.

Physical Infrastructure. Physical facilities, equipment, and tools should be designed to support and maximize changes in workflow, information technology, and human resources.

Process. The flow of work and information into and throughout the organization must be redesigned using standard continuous process improvement methodologies.

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16.16. Performance Improvement

Improving performance requires both planning and execution. For organizational change to be effective, planning and execution generally must include redesign or coordination on the following five interrelated fronts.

Organization and People. Human resources are the key to future viability and organizational growth in a continuous learning environment. Although processes and other front factors may change, focus should remain on providing workers with appropriate knowledge, skills, experiences, and tools.

Technology. Technology is a crucial enabling factor that allows compression of cycles, lead time, distance, and broader access to information and knowledge assets. Technology also eliminates barriers between customers and suppliers.

Policies, Legislation, and Regulations. Changing existing policies, regulations, and legislation may be required for new processes.

Physical Infrastructure. Physical facilities, equipment, and tools should be designed to support and maximize changes in workflow, information technology, and human resources.

Process. The flow of work and information into and throughout the organization, as mentioned in organizational management practices, must be redesigned using standard continuous process improvement methodologies.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.7. DOTMLPF

The acronym, DOTMLPF, stands for doctrine, organization, training, material, leadership and education, personnel, and facilities. The acronym is used by the Department of Defense to describe a thought process that considers a broad spectrum of elements or requirements to generate informed, conclusive solutions to problems, future requirements, strategic direction, and performance improvement. DOTMLPF is defined as a process that considers solutions involving any combination of these elements.

DOTMLPF serves as a valuable mnemonic for staff planners to consider for certain issues prior to undertaking new efforts. Because combatant commanders define requirements in consultation with the Office of the Secretary of Defense, they are able to consider gaps in the context of strategic direction for the U.S. Armed Forces and influence the direction of requirements earlier in the acquisition process. Here is an example of how DOTMLPF would be interpreted in the military context:

Doctrine: The way we fight (emphasizing maneuver warfare, combined air-ground campaigns).

Organization: How we organize the fight (divisions, air wings, task forces).

Training: How we prepare to fight tactically (basic military training, advanced individual training, unit training, joint exercises).

Materiel: All the 'stuff' necessary to equip the forces (weapons, spares) so we can operate effectively.

Leadership and Education: How we prepare leaders to lead the fight from squad leaders to four stars (professional development).

Personnel: Availability of qualified people for peacetime, wartime, and various contingency operations.

Facilities: Real property, installations, and industrial facilities (government owned ammunition production facilities) that support the forces.

2019 AFH-1

16.17. DOTMLPF

The acronym, DOTMLPF, stands for doctrine, organization, training, material, leadership and education, personnel, and facilities. The acronym is used by the Department of Defense to describe a thought process that considers a broad spectrum of elements or requirements to generate informed, conclusive solutions to problems, future requirements, strategic direction, and performance improvement. DOTMLPF is defined as a process that considers solutions involving any combination of these elements.

DOTMLPF serves as a valuable mnemonic for staff planners to consider for certain issues prior to undertaking new efforts. Because combatant commanders define requirements in consultation with the Office of the Secretary of Defense, they are able to consider gaps in the context of strategic direction for the U.S. Armed Forces and influence the direction of requirements earlier in the acquisition process. Here is an example of how DOTMLPF would be interpreted in the military context:

Doctrine: The way we fight (emphasizing maneuver warfare, combined air-ground campaigns).

Organization: How we organize the fight (divisions, air wings, task forces).

Training: How we prepare to fight tactically (basic military training, advanced individual training, unit training, joint exercises).

Materiel: All the 'stuff' necessary to equip the forces (weapons, spares) so we can operate effectively.

Leadership and Education: How we prepare leaders to lead the fight from squad leaders to four stars (professional development).

Personnel: Availability of qualified people for peacetime, wartime, and various contingency operations.

Facilities: Real property, installations, and industrial facilities (government owned ammunition production facilities) that support the forces.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.8. Organizational Structure (Balancing Precision with Flexibility)

Organizational design should be determined based on the organization's overall mission and strategy, taking into consideration the environment, size, and pace of technology.

In determining how an organization should be structured, it is important to balance the need for precision (need to maintain order, decrease ambiguity, and ensure direction is followed) with the need for flexibility (potential need to adapt quickly and encourage innovation).

The pros and cons of various organizational structures are briefly described here.

Mechanistic (Bureaucratic) Structure. A mechanistic or bureaucratic organizational structure is vertically arranged; communication and decision-making begin at the top and then filter downward. In this type of organizational structure, there is very little involvement of low-level members in decision-making, employees work in teams based on task specialty, and there is a heavy reliance on rules. The mechanistic system lends itself well to an organization where strategy or goals are geared toward efficiency and tasks need to be accomplished quickly and accurately. A stable environment that requires little flexibility is often conducive to a mechanistic structure. Also, if the size of an organization is intermediate to large, more structure may be necessary. Unfortunately, organizations with a mechanistic structure may find that job satisfaction suffers because subordinates basically do as they are told with little to no contribution to how things are done.

Organic Structure. An organic organization has horizontal and vertical communication, allowing communication to occur up and down as well as across departments and among co-workers without bureaucratic lines. Cross-talk and opinions are encouraged among employees to allow more involvement in decision-making and contribution into how things are done. The flexibility involved in day to day operations facilitates technological advancements, and allows employees to be more adaptable as changes arise. The organic organization's strategy is often geared toward innovativeness and creativity. The computer software industry is a good example of one that requires a creative design. The environment is unstable, with change being the norm rather than the exception. Organizations with organic structure are most often small to moderate, apply new technology through adaptation rather than compliance, and employ research and development that is creative rather than restrictive. The sharing of information and the participative environment increases worker satisfaction and often produces well-rounded decisions. Unfortunately, an organic structure may slow down the implementation process, lead to low efficiency, and reduce standards.

Diverse Structure. Because there are advantages and disadvantages of mechanistic and organic organizations, organizations with a diverse design incorporate both mechanistic and organic structures to accomplish the mission. The diverse design is used when the organization needs the rigid structure of the mechanistic organization in some areas and the flexibility of the organic organization in others. For example, administrative sections often have specific rules to follow when processing performance reports, decorations, and orders. For this purpose, a mechanistic system would be appropriate. In the same organization, a training section may be hindered by a rigid mechanistic system; therefore, an organic system would be more effective to allow for more frequent innovation in how training is delivered.

Matrix Structure. The matrix design is basically an organizational design or team within a mechanistic, organic, or diverse organization. A matrix design is usually best for addressing a temporary need within an organization, therefore it is short-lived, and the overall organizational structure remains intact. A matrix design brings workers from different sections or organizations together to serve a particular function. Within the matrix design, employees or team members have two bosses; the functional boss writes their performance report and schedules normal duty hours, and the project boss or team leader ensures the task at hand is accomplished appropriately. The strength of the matrix design lies in the pooling of expertise and resources; the weakness lies in the confusion of who is in charge.

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13.3. Organizational Design Structures

Organizational design structures, while taking into consideration the design factors of strategy, environment, size, and technology, will best be applied with the organization's overall mission in mind. Various design structures are briefly addressed here.

Mechanistic Design. The mechanistic design, sometimes referred to as the bureaucratic structure, is vertically arranged where communication and decision-making begin at the top and then filter downward. With the mechanistic design, there is very little involvement of low-level members in decision-making, employees work in teams based on task specialty, and there is a heavy reliance on rules. The mechanistic system lends itself well to an organization where strategy or goals are geared toward efficiency and tasks need to be accomplished quickly and accurately. A stable environment that requires little flexibility is often conducive to a mechanistic design. Also, if the size of an organization is intermediate to large, more structure may be necessary. Unfortunately, organizations using a mechanistic design may find that job satisfaction suffers because subordinates basically do as they are told with little to no contribution to how things are done.

Organic Design. The organic design has horizontal and vertical communication, allowing communication to occur up and down as well as across departments and among co-workers without bureaucratic lines. Cross-talk and opinions are encouraged among employees to allow more involvement in decision-making and contribution to how things are done. The flexibility involved in day to day operations ensures changes in the environment can be reacted to through technological advancements, while requiring employees to be adaptable as changes arise. The organic organization's strategy is geared toward innovativeness and creativity. The computer software industry is a good example of one that requires a creative design. The environment is unstable, with change being the norm rather than the exception. Organizations with organic structure are most often small to moderate, apply new technology through adaptation rather than compliance, and employ research and development that is creative rather than restrictive. The sharing of information and the participative environment increase worker satisfaction and often produce well-rounded decisions. Unfortunately, the organic design may slow down the implementation process, lead to low efficiency, and reduce standards.

Diverse Design. While there are advantages and strengths associated with mechanistic and organic organizations, one organizational design that incorporates the strengths of both the mechanistic and organic organizational structures is the diverse design. The diverse design is used when the organization needs the rigid structure of the mechanistic organization in some areas and the flexibility of the organic organization in others. For example, administrative sections often have specific rules to follow when processing performance reports, decorations, and orders. For this purpose, a mechanistic system would be appropriate. In the same organization, a training section would be hindered by a rigid mechanistic system; therefore, an organic system would be more effective. Organizations with a diverse design incorporate both mechanistic and organic structures to accomplish the mission.

Matrix Design. The matrix design is basically an organizational design or team within a mechanistic, organic, or diverse organization. A matrix design is usually best for addressing a temporary need within an organization, therefore it is short-lived, and the overall organizational structure remains intact. A matrix design brings workers from different sections or organizations together to serve a particular function. Within the matrix design, employees or team members have two bosses; the functional boss writes their performance report and schedules normal duty hours, and the project boss or team leader ensures the task at hand is accomplished appropriately. The strength of the matrix design lies in the pooling of expertise and resources; the weakness lies in the confusion of who is in charge.

2021 E5 Study Guide

12.12. Continuous Improvement
The use of Continuous Improvement (CI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the USAF mission. CI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is an Airmen Leadership Quality, is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities, 8 May 2014) and is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System, 29 January 2021).

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.12. Continuous Improvement
The use of Continuous Improvement (CI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the Air Force mission. CI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is an Airmen Leadership Quality, is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities) and is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System).

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.12. Continuous Improvement

The use of Continuous Improvement (CI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the Air Force mission. CI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is an Airmen Leadership Quality, is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities) and is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System).

Continuous Improvement Methodologies. Air Force CI incorporates aspects of four major methodologies to assist with organizational change. A practical problem solving method may simultaneously draw from more than one of these CI processes.

- Lean. Lean is a methodology focused on work flow, customer value, and eliminating process waste. Lean is unique from traditional process improvement strategies in that the primary focus is on eliminating non-value added activities.

- Six Sigma. Six sigma is a rigorous, data-driven methodology for process improvement focused on minimizing waste through identifying, controlling, and reducing process variation.

- Business Process Reengineering. Business process reengineering is a comprehensive process requiring a change in the fundamental way business processes are performed. Business process reengineering identifies unnecessary activities and eliminates them wherever possible.

- Theory of Constraints. Theory of constraints is a systematic approach to optimize resource utilization by identifying, exploiting, subordinating, elevating, and reassessing constraints (bottlenecks) in the process.

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13.12. Continuous Process Improvement

The use of Continuous Process Improvement (CPI) increases operational capabilities while reducing associated costs by applying proven methodologies to all processes associated with fulfilling the Air Force mission. CPI is a comprehensive philosophy of operations built around the concepts that there are always ways a process can be improved to better meet mission/customer requirements, organizations must constantly strive to make those improvements based on performance metrics that align to strategic objectives, and efficiencies should be replicated to the extent practical. CPI is a hallmark of highly successful organizations, is a major graded area in the Air Force Inspection System (AFI 90-201, The Air Force Inspection System), and is a commander's responsibility (AFI 1-2, Commander's Responsibilities).

Continuous Process Improvement Methodologies. Air Force CPI incorporates aspects of four major methodologies. A practical problem solving method may simultaneously draw from more than one of these CPI processes.

- Lean. Lean is a methodology focused on work flow, customer value, and eliminating process waste. Lean is unique from traditional process improvement strategies in that the primary focus is on eliminating non-value added activities.

- Six Sigma. Six sigma is a rigorous, data-driven methodology for process improvement focused on minimizing waste through identifying, controlling, and reducing process variation.

- Business Process Reengineering. Business process reengineering is a comprehensive process requiring a change in the fundamental way business processes are performed. Business process reengineering identifies unnecessary activities and eliminates them wherever possible.

- Theory of Constraints. Theory of constraints is a systematic approach to optimize resource utilization by identifying, exploiting, subordinating, elevating, and reassessing constraints (bottlenecks) in the process.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.13. Practical Problem Solving Method

At the core of Air Force CI is the practical problem solving method, a standardized and structured approach to problem solving used by global industry leaders, and adopted by DoD. The practical problem solving method, as shown in Figure 12.1., is an eight-step process used to clarify problems, identify root causes, and develop appropriate countermeasures to achieve change.

Note that the Osborn-Parnes convergent and divergent thinking techniques described in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be useful during many steps in this process.

Step 1-Clarify and Validate the Problem. The first step to effective problem-solving is to clearly understand the problem, often best accomplished by developing a problem statement. A well-defined problem statement uses data to identify where the problem is occurring, determine the impact of the problem, and compare performance against a standard with scope and direction. A problem statement does not assume a root cause, solution, or countermeasure, but should include visual tools to depict the current state. The who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem statement should be validated by data. This is done by collecting and analyzing data to validate the existence and magnitude of the problem. If data does not exist, the effort should be paused to collect and analyze the needed data before moving forward.

This step incorporates the Mess Finding, Data Finding, and Problem Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Step 2-Break Down Problem and Identify Performance Gaps. Understanding what appropriate data is required and the ability to interpret that data is paramount to performance gap analysis. Step 2 effectively frames and supports the problem in Step 1. Once the problem statement has been identified and answers the who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem, further analyze the data in comparison to the expected outcome. The expected outcome is the objective from which to measure the gap between the current state and end state (the expected outcome) and highlight opportunities for improvements (also called the performance gap).

Step 3-Set Improvement Targets. Air Force leaders establish a vision of what an organization will strive to become (the ideal state). In Step 3, process owners or project managers set improvement targets based on expected outcomes and strategic goals and objectives. Targets help define the required performance levels to achieve the desired end state. Targets should be challenging but achievable.

Step 4-Determine Root Cause. Air Force leaders often find themselves addressing problems which have been solved many times when previous problem-solving efforts were directed at symptoms of a problem rather than root causes. Root cause analysis often involves applying a tradeoff between digging as deeply as possible as opposed to finding the deepest point within the team's sphere of influence. The correct root cause should be validated by using the same data usedto define the problem in Step 1.

Step 5-Develop Countermeasures. Step 5 is where potential root causes are addressed with countermeasures. Consideration should be given to the most practical, efficient, and effective countermeasures. Valid countermeasures will close performance gaps and should move the organization closer to the ideal state. When developing countermeasures, strive for process improvement change that is sustainable and repeatable. At the end of Step 5, obtain a vector check to ensure strategic alignment with the desired outcome is still moving in the appropriate direction. Remember, the impact of a solution is a combination of the quality of the solution and the acceptance of the solution by people who implement it. Judiciously involving employees in the development of countermeasures generates buy-in and ownership of the solution and its success.

This step incorporates the Idea Finding, Solution Finding, and Acceptance Finding aspects of the Osborn-Parnes model.

Note that the techniques discussed in this handbook's chapter on Developing Ideas can be particularly useful when developing countermeasures. Defer judgment and allow a period of time to let ideas flow freely (brainstorm potential countermeasures, even those that may seem odd or unusual) before evaluating and selecting a solution.

Step 6-See Countermeasures Through. Step 6 is seeing countermeasures through to execution and tracking detailed implementation plans for each countermeasure approved in Step 5. Reviews and progress checks should be updated regularly on all tasks until countermeasures have been implemented, or until deemed unnecessary.

Step 7-Confirm Results and Process. Step 7 compares the results of implemented countermeasures to the identified performance gaps, improvement objectives/targets, and the expected outcome. Sustainability and repeatability of the improved process should be verified. Results are measured by data and analyzed to confirm the project's intent. Processes should be monitored for performance relative to the baseline developed in Steps 1 and 2, relative to targets established in Step 3, and relative to the solution implementation. Illustrate confirmed results with appropriate data tools which link back to performance gaps and improvement targets. Incorrect root-cause determination is the most common mistake made during CI efforts. If targets are not met, it may be necessary to return to Step 4.

Step 8-Standardize Successful Processes. Step 8 is the most commonly neglected step of the entire practical problem solving method; however, it is important to ensure the results of the efforts made in previous steps are codified. In Step 8, consider the answers to following three questions:

- What is needed to standardize the improvements? Possible answers may include a submission to the Airmen Powered by Innovation Program or change requests for technical orders, instructions, manuals, materiel, and suppliers.

- How should improvements and lessons learned be communicated? The wing process manager should be made aware of the success. Inputting information into the Air Force CI portal, conducting key meetings, writing publications, utilizing public affairs, informing the chain of command, or populating data collection sites.

- Were other opportunities or problems identified by the problem-solving model? This project may have identified additional problem-solving opportunities that should be recognized and addressed.

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13.13. Practical Problem Solving Method

At the core of Air Force CPI is the practical problem solving method, a standardized and structured approach to problem solving in the commercial industry, and adopted by the Air Force. The practical problem solving method, as shown in Figure 13.1., is an eight-step process used to clarify problems, identify root causes, and develop appropriate countermeasures to achieve change.

Step 1-Clarify and Validate the Problem. The first step to effective problem-solving is to clearly understand the problem, often best accomplished by developing a problem statement. A well-defined problem statement uses data to identify where the problem is occurring, determine the impact of the problem, and compare performance against a standard with scope and direction. A problem statement does not assume a root cause, solution, or countermeasure, but should include visual tools to depict the current state. The who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem statement should be validated by data. This is done by collecting and analyzing data to validate the existence and magnitude of the problem. If data does not exist, the effort should be paused to collect and analyze the needed data before moving forward.

Step 2-Break Down Problem and Identify Performance Gaps. Understanding what appropriate data is required and the ability to interpret that data is paramount to performance gap analysis. Step 2 effectively frames and supports the problem in Step 1. Once the problem statement has been identified and answers the who, what, when, where, and significance of the problem, further analyze the data in comparison to the expected outcome. The expected outcome is the objective from which to measure the gap between the current state and end state (the expected outcome) and highlight opportunities for improvements (also called the performance gap).

Step 3-Set Improvement Targets. Air Force leaders establish a vision of what an organization will strive to become (the ideal state). In Step 3, process owners or project managers set improvement targets based on expected outcomes and strategic goals and objectives. Targets help define the required performance levels to achieve the desired end state. Targets should be challenging but achievable.

Step 4-Determine Root Cause. Air Force leaders often find themselves addressing problems which have been solved many times when previous problem-solving efforts were directed at symptoms of a problem rather than root causes. Root cause analysis often involves applying a tradeoff between digging as deeply as possible as opposed to finding the deepest point within the team's sphere of influence. The correct root cause should be validated by using the same data used to define the problem in Step 1.

Step 5-Develop Countermeasures. Step 5 is where potential root causes are addressed with countermeasures. Consideration should be given to the most practical, efficient, and effective countermeasures. Valid countermeasures will close performance gaps and should move the organization closer to the ideal state. When developing countermeasures, strive for process improvement change that is sustainable and repeatable. At the end of Step 5, obtain a vector check to ensure strategic alignment with the desired outcome is still moving in the appropriate direction. Remember, the impact of a solution is a combination of the quality of the solution and the acceptance of the solution by people who implement it. Judiciously involving employees in the development of countermeasures generates buy-in and ownership of the solution and its success.

Step 6-See Countermeasures Through. Step 6 is seeing countermeasures through to execution and tracking detailed implementation plans for each countermeasure approved in Step 5. Reviews and progress checks should be updated regularly on all tasks until countermeasures have been implemented, or until deemed unnecessary.

Step 7-Confirm Results and Process. Step 7 compares the results of implemented countermeasures to the identified performance gaps, improvement objectives/targets, and the expected outcome. Sustainability and repeatability of the improved process should be verified. Results are measured by data and analyzed to confirm the project's intent. Processes should be monitored for performance relative to the baseline developed in Steps 1 and 2, relative to targets established in Step 3, and relative to the solution implementation. Illustrate confirmed results with appropriate data tools which link back to performance gaps and improvement targets. Incorrect root-cause determination is the most common mistake made during CPI efforts. If targets are not met, it may be necessary to return to Step 4.

Step 8-Standardize Successful Processes. Step 8 is the most commonly neglected step of the entire practical problem solving method; however, it is important to ensure the results of the efforts made in previous steps are codified. In Step 8, consider the answers to following three questions:

- What is needed to standardize the improvements? Possible answers may include a submission to the Airmen Powered by Innovation Program or change requests for technical orders, instructions, manuals, materiel, and suppliers.

- How should improvements and lessons learned be communicated? The wing process manager should be made aware of the success. Inputting information into the Air Force CPI portal, conducting key meetings, writing publications, utilizing public affairs, informing the chain of command, or populating data collection sites.

- Were other opportunities or problems identified by the problem-solving model? This project may have identified additional problem-solving opportunities that should be recognized and addressed.

2021 E6 Study Guide

12.17. Project Management Planning

Once options are developed, the most important and time-consuming aspect of project management must occur -planning the project. Planning a project involves activities that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how. Techniques of special importance to use during planning are gathering important information, creating a work breakdown structure, and conducting a task analysis. Regardless of the method of planning used, the completion of the tasks in a sense of order and timeliness, made foreseeable through the task analysis, ensures project completion is more likely to succeed.

Work Breakdown Structure. A work breakdown structure is a technique based on dividing a project into sub-units or work packages. Since all the elements required to complete the project are identified in the work breakdown structure, the chances of neglecting or overlooking an essential step are minimized. A work breakdown structure is typically constructed with two or three levels of detail, although more levels are common, depending on the complexity of a project. Such a structure for your project will permit you and others who see the work breakdown structure to readily identify what needs to be done, spot omissions which might later affect the outcome of the project, and make suggestions for improving and expanding the work breakdown structure. The amount of breakdown is an element the project manager and the project team must decide upon.

Task Analysis. Similar to the work breakdown structure, the amount of detail needed for a task analysis depends on the task involved and the desires of the project manager and project team. The more complex the project, the greater the importance of detailed task analysis. Information contained in the task analysis, which is not depicted in a work breakdown structure, includes task milestones, how the milestones can be measured, and resources or requirements. Project managers may delegate the task analysis for each task to the appropriate person. Once compiled, final decisions on task assignments and budgetary concerns can be addressed. The task analysis is what provides the crucial information for determining how the tasks of the project interrelate. It is imperative to establish the proper sequencing of tasks prior to beginning a project to ensure the efficiency of the project.

2019 AFH-1

13.17. Project Management Planning

Once options are developed, the most important and time-consuming aspect of project management must occur -planning the project. Planning a project involves activities that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how. Techniques of special importance to use during planning are gathering important information, creating a work breakdown structure, and conducting a task analysis. Regardless of the method of planning used, the completion of the tasks in a sense of order and timeliness, made foreseeable through the task analysis, ensures project completion is more likely to succeed.

B-SMART Objectives. Ultimately, the goal of project management is to achieve the objective of the project in the most logical, sensible manner. Once realization of the steps of project management is attained, accomplishing these steps requires understanding of B-SMART terminology. Throughout any project, beginning with Step 1, the concept of B-SMART should be taken into consideration. B-SMART is an acronym, which has been given a number of equally valuable meanings, depending on the context or circumstances.

B - Balanced: Ensure goals are bold yet balanced across the multiple fronts of organizational output and multiple targets.

S - Specific: Specific objectives/targets should answer who is involved, what is to be accomplished, where it is to be done, when it is to be done, which requirements and constraints exist, and why (purpose) the objective is being accomplished.

M - Measurable: Establish criteria for measuring progress toward and attainment of each objective/ target/ milestone until the desired objective is met.

A - Attainable: Ensure applicable resources are available and objectives/tasks (within acceptable levels of risk), are possible. It may also be helpful to use action-oriented statements rather than passive voice.

R - Results Focused: Link to the mission, vision, and goals and ensure they are meaningful and relevant to the user. Good objectives must be obtainable, yet purposeful.

T - Time-Bound: Provide date for completion. Targeted dates provide periodic and overall accountability.

B-SMART Objective Example: A B-SMART objective is one that is understandable, quantifiable, and precise. When the principles of B-SMART are applied to a project, a project objective (such as renovate the office area) will be considerably more defined. A B-SMART project objective would look like: Complete a renovation of the office area by 30 June 2021 at a cost not to exceed $12,000.

Work Breakdown Structure. A work breakdown structure is a technique based on dividing a project into sub-units or work packages. Since all the elements required to complete the project are identified in the work breakdown structure, the chances of neglecting or overlooking an essential step are minimized. A work breakdown structure is typically constructed with two or three levels of detail, although more levels are common, depending on the complexity of a project. Such a structure for your project will permit you and others who see the work breakdown structure to readily identify what needs to be done, spot omissions which might later affect the outcome of the project, and make suggestions for improving and expanding the work breakdown structure. The amount of breakdown is an element the project manager and the project team must decide upon.

Task Analysis. Similar to the work breakdown structure, the amount of detail needed for a task analysis depends on the task involved and the desires of the project manager and project team. The more complex the project, the greater the importance of detailed task analysis. Information contained in the task analysis, which is not depicted in a work breakdown structure, includes task milestones, how the milestones can be measured, and resources or requirements. Project managers may delegate the task analysis for each task to the appropriate person. Once compiled, final decisions on task assignments and budgetary concerns can be addressed. The task analysis is what provides the crucial information for determining how the tasks of the project interrelate. It is imperative to establish the proper sequencing of tasks prior to beginning a project to ensure the efficiency of the project.